- Keywords: Education, anti-racism.
- Timeline: Early 2000s.
- Summary: Identifying a lack of awareness of anti-racism education, Raby states: “[T]here seemed to be a lack of familiarity with anti-racist education, particularly awareness of structural racism, despite the fact that many had gone to school within Toronto and thus likely received some form of anti-racist education” (p. 381). Raby later adds: “[T]hese young women [participants] often seem to inadvertently slip into understandings of race and racism that deny their relevance and which position white, Anglo culture as the normative Canadian center” (p. 381).
Rahim, A. (2000). Multiculturalism or ethnic hegemony: a critique of multicultural education in Toronto. Journal of Ethnic Studies, 18, 3, 29-46.
- Keywords: Multicultural critique, multicultural education, Toronto.
- Timeline: 1950-88.
- Summary: Taking a critical look at multiculturalism policy, Rahim argues: “Multiculturalism is more political than cultural. It is used to mobilize the various non-Anglo and non-White minority groups for political ends on behalf of the hegemonic ethnic group” (p. 43).
Reitz, J. (1988). Less racial discrimination in Canada, or simply less racial conflict? Implications of comparisons with Britain. Canadian Public Policy, 14, 424-441.
- Keywords: Relations, discrimination, racism, policy.
- Timeline: 1980s.
- Summary: Critiquing Canada’s inability to foster an equitable social landscape, Reitz notes: “In a buoyant economy, expansion creates opportunities for minorities; in an economic downturn, privileged groups close ranks, carefully guarding their own interests against those of newcomers” (p. 433). Connecting this 1988 observation to mid-1960’s and the Trudeau era, Reitz notes: “John Porter’s (1965) analysis of ‘the vertical mosaic’ serves as a reminder that the Canadian ethnic mosaic never implied deliverance from inequality. When Pierre Trudeau outlined the ideology of multiculturalism in 1972, equality was one ultimate objective, but no specifics were guaranteed” (p. 436).
Roy, P. E. (1995). The fifth force: Multiculturalism and the English-Canadian identity. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 538, 199-209.
- Keywords: Bi-Bi Commission, Immigration policy, urban centres, Toronto.
- Timeline: 1971-1993.
- Summary: On the setting and controversy of the Bi-Bi commission, Roy observes: “At the time of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in the 1960s, Ukrainians reminded the federal government that not all Canadians belonged to the first two forces, French and English” (p. 199). The article provides a brief overview of how multiculturalism policy in Canada transformed between the 1970s and 1990s (p. 200-201).
