Introduction

Welcome to "Diversity in Canada - Research tool." My name is Cam Cobb and I have recently completed my Ph.D. at OISE/UT. My thesis, a qualitative study, is entitled "Minoritized Parents, Special Education, and Inclusion."

Over the years I have read a great many articles about aspects of ethno-cultural and ethno-racial diversity in Canada. Rather than keeping my notes to myself I've decided to post a series of summaries on this blog so that graduate students interested in social justice education may easily access a range of sources.

There are approximately 100 articles summarized in this database, and over time I expect this number to grow significantly. The articles are presented in alphabetical order according to the author. Many of the articles focus on a specific period in Canadian history, a specific location in Canada, and/or a specific aspect of ethno-cultural/ethno-racial diversity. Additionally, a number of the articles reflect on the complex nature of education as a landscape of plurality. Each article section includes information on the keywords, the timeline of the material, and a brief summary (with one or two key quotations). I have included a list of keywords in the space below to help you find what you need.

Locations: Calgary; Montreal; Toronto

Ethno-cultural & ethno-racial communities: African-Canadian; Caribbean; Chinese-Canadian; Croatian-Canadian; German-Canadian; Ghanian-Canadian; Greek-Canadian; Irish-Canadian; Italian-Canadian; Japanese-Canadian; Macedonian-Canadian; Portuguese-Canadian; South Asian; Ukrainian-Canadian; Vietnamese-Canadian

Ethno-cultural & religious communities: Buddhism, Catholic; Jewish; Muslim; Sikh

Terms linked to diversity/pluralism: abuse; activism; anti-racism; awareness; Bi-Bi Commission; civic/political participation; community building; cultural change; diaspora; discrimination; education; election; ethnicity; exclusion; funding; gay; sex/gender; holocaust; image; immigrant experience; interest convergence theory; isolation; government services; identity; immigrant policy; internment; labour; language; multiculturalism; pluralism; policy; racism; redress settlement; relations; religious expression; refugee

(In case you were wondering, this blog does indeeed have a twin, entitled "Diversity in Canada-Research tool." You may find this twin blog at the following URL: http://www.specialeducation-researchtool.blogspot.com/.

A

Abella, I.; & Troper, H. (1979). ‘The line must be drawn somewhere’: Canada and Jewish refugees, 1933-1939. Canadian Historical Review, 60, 178-209.

• Keywords: Jewish, refugee, holocaust, immigration policy, exclusion.
  Timeline: 1933-1939.
  Summary: Abella and Troper examine Canada’s 1930s immigration policy, which excluded Jewish refugees: “The Canadian government’s success in withstanding pressure from pro-refugee groups, both Jewish and non-Jewish, was virtually complete. The Depression, the general apathy in English Canada, the outright hostility of French Canada, the unyielding opposition of certain key officials, the prime minister’s concerns for votes, and the overlay of anti-Semitism that dominated official Ottawa thinking on the question combined to ensure that no more than a mere handful of Jewish refugees would find haven in Canada” (p. 209).

Abu-Laban, Y.; & Stasiulis, D. (1992). Ethnic pluralism under siege: Popular and partisan opposition to multiculturalism. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 26, 365-386.

• Keywords: Multiculturalism policy.
• Timeline: 1970s-early 1990s.
• Summary: This article surveys some criticisms on multiculturalism policy and practice in Canada.

Agrawal, S. (2006). Housing adaptations: A study of Asian Indian immigrant homes in Toronto. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 1, 117-130.

• Keywords: South Asian, immigrant experiences, housing, cultural change.
• Timeline: 2000s.
• Summary: According to Agrawal: “A large degree of acculturation has occurred among Asian Indian respondents who have been in Canada for some time. Their food habits may not have changed much, but their phases in life – kids growing up and leaving home followed by elderly life – and their corresponding needs coincide with those of mainstream Canadians” (p. 127).

Aizlewood, A.; & Pendakur, R. (2005). Ethnicity and social capital in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 2, 77-102.

• Keywords: Multiculturalism policy, pluralism.
• Timeline: 2000s.
• Summary: This quantitative study argues that education and socio-economic status are the two most potent elements of identity. Towards the end of the paper, Aizlewood and Pendakur state: “Based on our research, controlling diversity is neither justifiable nor realistic, but more importantly does not appear to be the answer. Education and income appear to be far more effective levers for affecting social capital.” (p. 96).

Asanova, J. (2005). Educational experiences of immigrant students from the former Soviet Union: A case study of an ethnic school in Toronto. Educational Studies, 31, 2, 181-195.

• Keywords: Former Soviet Union, immigrant experiences, pluralism, education.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Considering the opening of an alternative school in Toronto, Asanova states: “In 1998 an ethnic school was founded in Toronto, home to a sizable enclave of immigrants from the former Soviet Union (FSU). For two consecutive years, Chekhov School – run by and for FSU immigrants …” (p. 181). Near the end of the paper, Asanova reflects: “One reason ethnic schools can be effective is that they can facilitate long-term acculturation of immigrant youth. In Israel, Mofet schools help FSU [former Soviet Union] immigrants to integrate into a society by enhancing their chances of high school completing and university admittance” (p. 193).

Azmi, S. (1999). Wife abuse and ideological competition in the Muslim community in Toronto. In H. Troper & M. Weinfeld (Eds.), Ethnicity, Politics, and Public Policy: Case Studies in Canadian Diversity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (pp. 164-189)

• Keywords: Muslim, gender, abuse, Toronto, government services.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Summing up the paper, Azmi notes: “To review, there was substantial variation among Muslim respondents with respect to the nature of wife abuse” (p. 185).” Azmi goes on to state: “Their views can be grouped into four ideological camps. On one end of the spectrum was the Imam. His perceptions were unique and reflected a profoundly traditional religious view of welfare. Wife abuse was understood within an exclusively religious framework. It was a religious problem and had a religious answer (p. 185).” In considering alternatives to the Imam’s view, Azmi states: “On the other end of the spectrum were the perceptions of respondents in the ethnic-cultural group, who tended to separate the realms of secular welfare and religion … they expressed frustration with mainstream institutions for what was regarded as a lack of cultural sensitivity. They were divided on whether this lack of cultural sensitivity was the product of systemic racism or a more benign absence of cross-cultural training and experience” (p. 185).

B

Balakrishnan, T.R.; Ravanera, Z.R.; & Abada, T. (2005). Spatial residential patterns and socio-economic integration of Filipinos in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 2, 67-76.

• Keywords: Filipino-Canadian, immigrant experience, labour, community building.
• Timeline: 2000s.
• Summary: This paper examines inequities faced by Filipino-Canadians: “As with other minority groups, Filipinos are also more concentrated than the European groups. In contrast to ethnic groups such as Germans, Scandinavians or Dutch, Asian immigrants in North America retain strong ties with family and friends living in their native lands for a long time. They regularly visit their homelands and send remittances to support close family members or relatives, thus giving significant foreign-exchange revenue to these countries. The main point is that cultural ties are relatively strong in the Filipino community, and this is exhibited in a higher spatial concentration as well. Despite their comparatively higher education, faculty with the English language … Filipinos continue to earn less in the labour market, and are resident in poor sections of the city” (p. 75).

Bangarth, S. (2005). The long, wet summer of 1942: The Ontario farm service force, small-town Ontario and the Nisei. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 1, 40-62.

• Keywords: Japanese-Canadian, internment, exclusion, labour.
• Timeline: 1940s-1950s.
• Summary: Bangarth chronicles the experiences of Japanese-Canadians in Ontario during WWII: “While studies focusing on the internment issue are numerous, there has been little research about the Japanese Canadians who relocated to other parts of Canada” (p. 40).
  Bangarth identifies the aim of his paper as follows: “The purpose of this paper is to introduce a new chapter into the wartime internment and dispersal of thousands of Japanese Canadians by examining the role of the Ontario Farm Service Force in the employment of male, Japanese Canadian labour in the wartime sugar beet economy in southwestern Ontario, and the impact that this infusion of “aliens” had on small-town Ontario populations” (p. 40).

Bassoondath, N. (1994). I am a Canadian. Saturday Night, October 1994, 11-22.

• Keywords: Multiculturalism, anti-racism, African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: Early 1990s.
• Summary: On the subject of Afrocentric schools, Bassoondath states: “An “Afrocentric” or “black-focused” school system, radically segregated, racially staffed, would simply be a return to the past: to the racial separations of the American south; to the separate but (un)equal approaches of apartheid. It might produce higher grades – and even that is debatable – but would it prepare students for the wider world? It may facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, but would it facilitate the socialization necessary to life beyond the comforting confines of its walls?” (p. 14).

Behiels, M.D. (1988). Neo-Canadians and the schools in Montreal, 1900-1970. Journal of Canadian Geography, 8, 5-16.

• Keywords: Jewish, education, Montreal.
• Timeline: 1900-1970.
• Summary: Early in the paper, Behiels notes that the Jewish community in Montreal, “unlike many of the other ethnic groups, has a complete institutional network of hospitals, schools and synagogues” (p. 6). Considering Jewish education, Behiels observes: “A special curriculum was designed and approved by the Catholic Committee of the Council of Public Instruction in 1961 … Principals and administrators in the English language sector flatly refused to implement the new curriculum” (p. 13).

Bramadat, P. (2005). Toward a new politics of authenticity: Ethno-cultural representation in theory and practice. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 1, 1-20.

• Keywords: Ethnicity, identity, cultural change.
• Timeline: 2000s.
• Summary: Bramadat stresses the need to delve into tensions within ethno-cultural identities: “One of the central tasks of the contemporary post-colonial observer is to perceive and articulate the heterogeneity within supposedly unified cultures, and to resist the elitist tendency to quickly and categorically define what is and is not an authentic depiction of a particular culture” (p. 15-16). Bramadat recommends: “For researchers, the effort to determine how closely a given ethnic representation approximates an often essentialized conception of that community’s authentic nature may, one hopes, give way to analysis of the specific tensions within Canada’s sub-communities: between, for example, gay and straight Greeks, White and Black South Africans, rich and poor Belgians, male and female Portuguese, young and old Salvadorians, first- and second-generation Koreans” (p. 16).

Breton, Ray. (1964). Institutional Completeness of Ethnic Communities and the Personal Relations of Immigrants. American Journal of Sociology, 70, 193-205.

• Keywords: Ethnicity, immigrant experience, community building.
• Timeline: Early 1960s.
• Summary: Regarding community building, Breton notes: “In other words, the existence of an institution in the group would tend to have the observed effect on the cohesiveness of the ethnic group” (p. 197). Breton goes on to state: “The degree of institutional completeness of an immigrant’s ethnic community is one of the main factors determining the direction of the change in the composition of his personal relations” (p. 202).

Brotz, H. (1986). Multiculturalism in Canada: A muddle. Canadian Public Policy, 6, 41-46.

• Keywords: Multiculturalism.
• Timeline: 1970s-1980s.
• Summary: Brotz critiques multiculturalism policy in Canada: “Culture is a term which originated in German thought in the eighteenth century as something to be contrasted with and opposed to civilization … Then, towards the end of the nineteenth century, the term culture became taken over by English-speaking anthropologists who began to use it under the impress of an empiricist methodology on the one hand cultural relativism on the other. Everyone had a culture – empiricism. Every culture was equal – relativism” (p. 42).

Brouwer, R.C. (1998). A disgrace to ‘Christian Canada’: Protestant foreign missionary concerns about the treatment of South Asians in Canada, 1907-1940. In F. Iacovetta (Ed.), A Nation of Immigrants. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (361-383)

• Keywords: South Asian, racism, exclusion, community building.
• Timeline: 1907-1940.
• Summary: Brouwer chronicles the challenges faced by South Asian immigrants to Canada between 1907 and 1940: “In the face of the hostility they encountered in Canada, the South Asians did not adopt the role of ‘passive Orientals.’ Nor did they abandon their religious and national identity. Instead, they closed ranks and they learned to do what many another missonized group inside and outside Canada had long since learned to do: gain strength from the services and friendships provided by Christian missionaries without necessarily yielding to their ultimate religious and cultural goals” (p. 378).

Burnet, J. (1979). Myths and multiculturalism. Canadian Journal of Education, 4, 43-58.

• Keywords: Multiculturalism, education, Bi-Bi Commission.
• Timeline: 1970s.
• Summary: Burnet identifies the Bi-Bi commission as a key moment of ethno-cultural awareness in Canada: “In the end the Commission [Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism] devoted Book 4 of its Report to the other ethnic groups, presenting an account based on a small amount of research devoted to them” (p. 46). Burnet goes on to note: “An ethnic group is made up of those who share a feeling of peoplehood” (p. 50).

C

Castles, S. (2003). The Illusion of difference: Realities of ethnicity in Canada and the United States. In J. Reitz & R. Breton (Eds.), Host Societies and the Reception of Immigrants. La Jolla: University of California.

• Keywords: Pluralism, ethnicity.
• Timeline: 1970s-Early 1990s.
• Summary: On the matters of identity and multiculturalism, Castles notes: “Multiculturalism means abandoning the myth of homogenous and monocultural nation-states. It means recognizing rights to cultural maintenance and community formation, and linking these to social equality and protection from discrimination. Yet multiculturalism can still be seen as a way of controlling difference within the nation-state framework because it does not question the territorial principle. It implicitly assumes that migration will lead to permanent settlement and to the birth of second and subsequent generations who are both citizens and nationals. Thus multiculturalism maintains the idea of a primary belonging to one society and a loyalty to just one nation-state” (p. 437).

Chan, K. (1986). Ethnic urban space, urban displacement and forced relocation: The case of Chinatown in Montreal. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 18, 2, 65-78.

• Keywords: Chinese-Canadian; community building.
• Timeline: 1980s.
• Summary: On negotiating ethno-cultural space in Montreal, Chan states: “Chinatown was created by a unique set of historical, political and economic forces emanating from intergroup transactions. It existed because of an historical fact: overt structural discrimination. It has continued to exist because it serves a variety of functions, both for the Chinese and the larger society. The Chinese insist that they have historical and territorial claims over Chinatown, that the residents, the ethnic associations, the businesses as well as the traditional character of Chinatown will be protected, and that they have rights to an urban space that once was theirs” (p. 76).

Chow, H.P.H. (2006). Vietnamese-Canadian university students in Regina: Socio-cultural and educational adaptation. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 2, 104-112.

• Keywords: Vietnamese-Canadian, identity, cultural change.
• Timeline: late 1990s-early 2000s.
• Summary: In this quantitative study, Chow notes: “Concerning ethnic self-identification, students who strongly identified themselves as Vietnamese exhibited a more negative adaptation experience, suggesting that a strong sense of ethnic identity devoid of positive identification with the mainstream society may aggravate psychological conflict” (p. 109).

Chumak-Horbatsch, R. (1999). Language change in the Ukrainian home: From transmission to maintenance to the beginning of loss. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 31, 2, 61-75.

• Keywords: Ukrainian-Canadian, cultural change, language, community building.
• Timeline: 1915-96.
• Summary: Chumak-Horbatch reflects on the linguistic identity/change in Canada’s Ukrainian community: “Mothers felt that the Ukrainian community of Toronto should function as a language support for parents, providing opportunities for Ss to meet and experience Ukranian life outside the home” (p. 72).

Claussen, C.; & Wong, L.L. (2004). Bridging unsettling waters: Ethnie and identity in the Calgary Jewish community. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 36, 2, 119-131.

• Keywords: Jewish, Calgary, identity.
• Timeline: Early 2000s.
• Summary: Claussen and Wong consider the overlapping nature of religious and ethno-cultural identity within Calgary’s Jewish community: “The work here contextualizes Jewish identity and Jewish people as ethnic, and this provides an alternative to the debate over the conflicting labels of Jews as being an ethnic versus a religious versus a cultural group. In using the Calgary participants as an example, it is clear that those within the Jewish community have difficulty in using any single term to define themselves. By using the term ethnie as a conceptual framework for the Jewish community, the special circumstances of history and persecution can be incorporated into the notion of Jewish identity” (p. 127-128).

Cohen, R.; & Gold, G. (1997). Constructing ethnicity: Myth of return and modes of exclusion among Israelis in Toronto. International Migration, 35, 3, 373-394.

• Keywords: Jewish, community, identity, cultural change, diaspora, Toronto.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: On Jewish identity and community in Toronto, Cohen and Gold note: “The emergence of exclusive organizations represents resistance to integration into the organized Jewish community. At the same time it symbolizes the reproduction of Israeliness in the Diappora. The myth of return, Chazara, become institutionalized in these new organizations in the same way that Diaspora Canadian Jews incorporate Aliyah as the symbolic essence of their Zionism. This myth facilitates the development of a distinctive Israeli ethnic community in Toronto” (p. 388).

Couton, P. (1999). The role of minority educators: Haitian teachers in Quebec schools. In H. Troper & M. Weinfeld (Eds.), Ethnicity, Politics, and Public Policy: Case Studies in Canadian Diversity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (pp. 142-163)

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Considering the matter of ethno-racial identity in Quebec’s Hatian-Canadian teaching community, Couton notes: “Ethnic mismatch in the origins of teachers, the curriculum, and the school environment is perceived as the primary cause of the negative educational experience of those students. The only way to prevent these harmful outcomes, according to some educators, is to increase the degree of ‘cultural congruence’ or ethnic match in the educational process” (p. 142-143).

Croucher, S. L. (1997). Constructing the image of ethnic harmony in Toronto, Canada: The politics of problem definition and nondefinition. Urban Affairs Review, 32, 3, 319-47.

• Keywords: Relations, exclusion, Toronto, image (of pluralism).
• Timeline: 1980s-1990s.
• Summary: Despite some who argue that Toronto is a symbol of harmony, Croucher argues that in reality it is still a landscape of inequity: “[I]mages, issues, and identities that achieve prominence on a given polity’s public agenda are those that are put forth by, and reflect the interests of, individuals and groups with the greatest access to a polity’s political, economic, and social resources. Despite the demographic changes that have swept Toronto in recent years, the city remains firmly in the control of an Anglo-British majority” (p. 341). Croucher goes on to note that: “[N]ot only has the claims-making activity of the elite and the policies, ideologies, that rhetoric of multiculturalism served to portray Toronto in terms of ethnic harmony but they have simultaneously functioned to prevent racism from being defined as a social problem in Toronto” (p. 341).

D

Dei, G.J.S. (1993). Narrative discourse of Black/African-Canadian parents and the Canadian public school system. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 25, 3, 45-65.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: Early 1990s.
• Summary: Dei considers resistance within Canada’s African-Canadian community: “Historically, immigrant parents have organized and demanded structural changes to address concerns of discrimination and prejudice in the schools, and for policy and curriculum changes in the school boards” (p. 48). Articulating his definition of anti-racism, Dei notes: “An anti-racist theoretical framework to understanding the processes of public schooling in Canada acknowledges the role of the educational system in producing and reproducing racial, gender, and class-based inequalities in society. It also acknowledges the pedagogic need to confront the challenge of diversity and difference in Canadian society and the urgency for an educational system that is more inclusive and is capable of responding to minority concerns about public schooling” (p 49).

Dei, G.J.S. (1993). The challenges of anti-racist education in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 25, 2, 36-51.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: Early 1990s.
• Summary: Dei outlines his vision of anti-racism as follows: “Anti-racist education, therefore, is a discourse about the social inequality experienced by all non-white people of various class backgrounds and sexual orientations. It is beyond dispute that the world is experienced differently depending on one’s race, ethnicity, class, ability, gender and sexual preference, and one’s place in the world’s economic system” (p. 37-38).

Dei, G.J.S. (1994). Afrocentricity: A cornerstone of pedagogy. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 25, 1, 3-28.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: Early 1990s.
• Summary: This paper “address[es] the implications of Afrocentric knowledge for contemporary schooling and education of particularly of students of African descent in North America” (p. 3).

Dei, G.J.S. (1996). Critical perspectives in antiracism: An introduction. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 33, 3, 247-267.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: This paper “explores some of the ways that antiracism knowledge can be constructed, produced and disseminated, particularly (but not exclusively) in Euro-Canadian/American contexts, and highlights some of the challenges that current globalization provide for education and social change, and the rationale for engaging in antiracist praxis” (p. 248).”

Dei, G.J.S. (1996-1997). Beware of false dichotomies: Revisiting the idea of "black-focused" schools in Canadian contexts. Journal of Canadian Studies, 31, 4, 58-77.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: In summing up the paper, Dei states: “This paper utilizes the narrative accounts of Black youth and "dropouts" about schools and off - school experiences in a Canadian inner city to advance the argument for a "Black - focused/African - centred" school in Euro - Canadian/American contexts” (p. 58).

Dei, G.J.S. (2006). Black-focused schools: A call for re-visioning. Education Canada, 46, 3, 27-31.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: 2000s.
• According to Dei: “The African-centred/Black-focused school proposal is a work in progress. It is in need of further conceptualizing and refinement; however, it must not be dismissed through the intellectually patronizing and colonizing practice of claiming that culturally-specific is not supported by a valid social theory” (p. 31).

Dei, G.J.S. (2008). Schooling as community: Race, schooling, and the education of African youth. Journal of Black Studies, 38, 3, 346-366.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, education.
• Timeline: 2000s.
• Summary: As Dei notes: “There must be room for community-initiated alternatives to mainstream, conventional education” (p. 361). Calling for new research, Dei observes: “We also need new educational research that challenges the traditional practice of merely inserting parents and communities into already existing structures of schooling” (p. 362).

Di Biase, S.; Bauder, H. (2006). Immigrant settlement in Ontario: Location and labour markets. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 3, 114-135.

• Keywords: Immigrant experience, labour, policy.
• Timeline: 1990s-2000s.
• Summary: On the matter of geography and movement, Di Biase and Bauder state: “In Canada, the vast majority of immigrants settle in urban regions … Few immigrants settle in rural areas or in the Prairie or Atlantic provinces. This geographical imbalance has fostered a renewed interest among policy makers regarding how immigrant flows can be directed toward smaller cities and towns” (p. 114). Later in the paper, the writers note: “We observed that a smaller number of rural towns and villages exhibit comparatively high rates of immigrant concentration, while many other areas lack a significant population of recent immigrants” (p. 130-131).

Dion, K. L.; & Kawakami, K. (1996). Ethnicity and perceived discrimination in Toronto: Another look at the person/group discrimination discrepancy. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 28, 203-213.

• Keywords: Relations, ethnicity, discrimination, exclusion, labour, Toronto.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Summing up the survey-oriented research project, Dion and Kawakami note: “Perceptions of personal and group discrimination in five domains (jobs, pay, loans, promotions and clubs) were investigated using the 1992 Minority Survey, which consisted of telephone interviews with 902 respondents from different ethnic groups in Toronto. The reported analysis concerns six ethnic groups, representing “visible” racial minorities (Blacks, Chinese, and South Asians) as well as white minorities (Italians, Jews, Portuguese)” (p. 203).

Dib, K. (2006). Canada’s 150th anniversary multiculturalism and diversity: Vehicles for sustainable socio-economic progress. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 3, 143-179.

• Keywords: Pluralism, labour, multiculturalism, policy.
• Timeline: 2007.
• Summary: According to Dib: “[B]y 2011, immigration will be the sole source of net labour-force growth, and almost 90 percent of these immigrants will be minorities; by the year 2025, immigration will be the source of all population growth” (p. 144). Calling for stronger equity policies, Dib states: “An effective approach is needed to face up to the challenges of the changing demographics of Canada in the next two decades. This approach should start with recognition, especially by policy-makers at the highest level, of the new and dynamic portrait of Canada. Canadian diversity, multiculturalism, and equity have been applied timidly” (p. 144).

Donkor, M. (2004). Looking back and looking in: rethinking adaptation strategies of Ghanaian immigrant women in Canada. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 5, 1, 33-51.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, Ghanian-Canadian, cultural change.
• Timeline: 1973-93.
• Summary: In summarizing the paper, Donkor states: “This paper examines what it meant for Ghanian women to “look back” and how “looking back” dictated their adaptation strategies. The paper moves beyond notions of adaptation that stress measurable and quantifiable outcomes to one that stresses the agency of immigrant women” (p. 33).
  

Dryson, L.L. (2005). The lives of recent Chinese immigrant in Canadian society: Values, aspirations, and social expectations. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 2, 49-66.

• Keywords: Chinese-Canadian, immigrant experience, cultural change.
• Timeline: Early 2000s.
• Summary: Near the end of the paper, Dryson states: “[I]n the area of children’s values and aspirations … immigration and acculturation do indeed influence children’s development” (p. 63). Later, Dryson suggests: “Classrooms could strive toward creating a less competitive environment so as to accommodate the social needs of immigrant children” (p. 64).

Drystek, H.F. (1982). “The Simplest and Cheapest Mode of Dealing with Them”: Deportation from Canada before World War II. Social History, 30, 407-443.

• Keywords: Immigration policy, exclusion.
• Timeline: 1910s-1930s.
• Summary: Reflecting on Canada's exclusionary use of deportation prior to WWII, Drystek states: “The deportation policy reflected the conservatism of a society reluctant to accept the realities of an emerging, urban, industrial world. The determination of the middle class to resist the cost of adequate social services contributed to the deportations, especially during periods of economic recession” (p. 407).

D’Souza, M.O. (2000). Religious particularism and cultural pluralism: The possible contribution of religious education to Canadian political identity. Religious Education, 95, 234-249.

• Keywords: Pluralism, religion, education.
• Timeline: 1970s-1990s.
• Summary: Reflecting on Canada's history of multiculturalism in terms of policy, D'Souza notes: “Canadian multiculturalism has been official government policy since 1971, reaffirmed by the passing of the Canadian Multiculturalism Act in 1988. In 1997, the Department of Canadian Heritage structured the Multicultural Programme with three goals: identity, civic participation, and social justice” (p. 235). D’Souza explores the question of how religious education could take place in public schools: “The modern multicultural and pluralist state may be sitting on the horns of a dilemma: while it cannot officially support any one religious or theological position, it should not ignore the transcendental aspirations of the citizen as a person” (p. 236).

Duncan, K. (1965). Irish famine immigration and the social structure of Canada West. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 2, 19-40.

• Keywords: Irish-Canadian, refugee.
• Timeline: 1800s.
• Summary: Reflecting on Irish migration to Canada in the 1800s, Duncan states: “In brief, then, the arrival of the famine immigrants had the following consequences for Canada West: the introduction of controls upon overseas immigrations; the creating of an Irish Catholic urban proletariat; the development of areas of de facto segregation in cities; the accentuation of religious conflict; the introduction of religious construction of a network of rail communications; the introduction of a tradition of violence to gain economic, religious, and political ends; and greatly increased crime” (p. 33).

E

F

G

Garcea, J. (2006). Provincial multiculturalism policies in Canada, 1974-2004: A content analysis. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 3, 1-20.

• Keywords: Multiculturalism, policy.
• Timeline: 1974-2004.
• Summary: Reflecting on the solidification of human rights in Canada, Garcea notes: “Minority rights movements entailed an assertion of these rights as the international, national, and sub-national levels. In the Canadian context, this particular movement produced the Canadian Bill of Rights in 1960, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in the 1960s, the Canadian Multiculturalism Policy in 1971, the Canadian Human Rights Commission in 1977, and ultimately, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982” (p. 2). Near the end of the paper, Garcea states: "The goal of interculturalism will be articulated primarily to acknowledge the importance of promoting anti-racism, social cohesion, and social harmony within the provinces. The goal of cultural promotion and preservation will likely be profiled primarily to acknowledge the value and importance of Aboriginal cultures. The goal of interculturalism will likely receive greater prominence because it seems to have greater resonance and support among the public than the promotion and preservation of various cultures … Positive views on the ethos of interculturalism and cross-culturalism tend to be greater than they are for multiculturalism” (p. 16).

Gerber, L.M. (2006). The visible minority, immigrant, bilingual composition of ridings and party support in the Canadian federal election of 2004. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 1, 65-82.

• Keywords: Election, pluralism.
• Timeline: 2004.
• Summary: Suggesting a possible area of study, Gerber states: “The link between immigrant or visible minority status and support for the Liberal Party is frequently reported, but is seldom the specific focus of research” (p. 66). On the interplay between ethno-cultural identity, ethno-racial identity and social barriers, Gerber notes: “The link between ethnicity or race and social class, either as a vertical mosaic (Porter, 1965) or as a rainbow class structure (Frideres, 2005), has been well established in the literature. Using the rainbow analogy, Frideres points out that class differentiation once based on ethnicity is being reconstituted on the basis of race or colour as recent immigrants (largely visible minorities) face discrimination, blocked aspirations, and a downward spiral” (p. 66). On the matter of electoral support in ridings that are more/less diverse, Gerger states: “Multicultural ridings support the Liberals and wealthy ones the Conservatives, while both reject the Bloc … It turns out that levels of diversity, social class composition, and region are powerful predictors of voting patterns among the electoral districts in Canada” (p. 79).

Germain, A.; Dansereau, F.; & Gagnon, J.E. (2004). “Ethnic” dilemmas?: Religion, diversity and multicultural planning in Montreal. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 36, 2, 51-75.

• Keywords: Pluralism, policy, Montreal, Jewish.
• Timeline: 1990s-2000s.
• Summary: When summarizing their paper, Germain, Dansereau and Gagnon state: “In sum, when it comes to land use and urban planning, culturally specific needs such as those associated with religious practices are taken into account on a case-by-case basis” (p. 68). Germain, Danserau and Gagnon later add: “Furthermore, land use conflicts are not always simply about racism or intolerance; they are often complex situations involving a number of players (citizens, interest groups, political representatives, municipal administrators, the media), issues (economic, cultural, social, demographic, political), and dynamics (interpersonal, inter-group, leadership). This does not imply that bigotry is not an element in land use disputes, only that other factors must also be considered in order to address all the salient issues” (p. 68).

Gidney, R.D. (1999). The completion of the separate school system, 1960-1987. In R.D. Gidney, From Hope to Harris: The Reshaping of Ontario Schools. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (pp. 124-141)

• Keywords: Catholic, education, separate schools, funding.
• Timeline: 1960-1987.
• Summary: In this chapter Gidney explores the events leading up to (and immediately following) Ontario’s Bill 30. The Supreme Court’s June 1987 decision ultimately involved “side-stepping the larger question of the rights of other religious groups to funding as well” (p. 140).

Granatstein, J.L.; & Johnson, G.A. (1988). The evacuation of the Japanese Canadians, 1942: A realist critique of the received version. In N. Hillmer (et al), On Guard for Thee. Ottawa: Canadian Committee for the History of the Second World War. (pp. 131-149)

• Keywords: Japanese-Canadian, internment, exclusion.
• Timeline: 1940s.
• Summary: Reflecting on the attitudes Japanese-Canadians faced in the early 1940s, Granastein and Johnson note: “Moreover, white British Columbians (and Canadians generally) had long had fears that the Japanese Canadians were unassimilable into Canadian society and, beginning early in this century and intensifying as the interwar period wore on, that many might secretly be acting as agents of their original homeland, now an aggressive and expansionist Japan” (p. 101).

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Harney, R.F. (1977). A note on sources in urban and immigrant history: (Including excerpts from primary materials on Macedonians in Toronto). Canadian Ethnic Studies, 9, 1, 60-76.

• Keywords: Macedonian-Canadian, immigrant experience, community building.
• Timeline: Early 1900s.
• Summary: Stressing the importance of collecting immigrant stories, Harney states: “However, to pass through ethnic boundaries to ethnic identities, the immigrants’ own account of his urban experience is necessary … We include a sampler of materials on the Macedonians in Toronto, materials that have been donated to the Multicultural History Society of Ontario” (p. 60).

Harney, R.F. (1979). Men without women: Italian migrants in Canada, 1885-1930. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 11, 1, 29-47.

• Keywords: Italian-Canadian, immigrant experience, community building.
• Timeline: 1885-1930.
• Summary: Combining documented historical material along with personal narratives will help to create a fuller picture of Italian-Canadian immigrant experiences in the late 1800s and early 1900s: “The real history of the sojourners and of Canadian “Little Italies” will only be within our reach when all the possible archival and statistical sources are used along with “memory culture” (p. 42).

Harney, R.F. (1981). Toronto’s Little Italy, 1885-1945. In R.F. Harney & J.V. Scarpaci (Eds.) Little Italies in North America. Toronto: Multicultural History Society of Ontario. (pp. 63-84)

• Keywords: Western European, Italian-Canadian, community building, Toronto.
• Timeline: 1885-1945.
• Summary: In summarizing the paper/chapter, Harney states: “This paper … deals not with the contemporary immigrant city but with the more threatened history and vanished world of the pre-World War Two Italian Canadian: a world which formed part of the classic turn-of-the-century Italian diaspora throughout the Americas, a space which was neither fully Canadian nor Italian” (p. 63).

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Iacovetta, F. (1991). Ordering in bulk: Canada recruits contract workers from Italy. Journal of American Ethnic History, 11, 50-80.

• Keywords: Western European, Italian-Canadian, immigrant experience, labour.
• Timeline: 1940s-1950s.
• Summary: Reflecting on the need for future research on immigration policy in Canada, Iacovetta states: “Yet an analysis that explores the intersection between, on the one hand, policy-making and its implementation, and on the other, the immigrant perspective can yield fruitful results” (p. 52). When reflecting on workplace challenges European immigrants faced in the 1940s and 1950s, Iacovetta notes: “Moreover, employers sought to prevent workers from joining forces against them by segregating their work gangs according to nationality and heading up each gang with a trusted foremen. They also threatened immigrants with deportation” (p. 68-69).

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Keyserlingk, R.H. (1984). Breaking the Nazi Plot: Canadian Government Attitudes Towards German Canadians, 1939-1945. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 16, 1, 16-28.

• Keywords: German-Canadian, internment.
• Timeline: 1939-1945.
• Summary: Reporting statistics of German-Canadian internment during WWII, Keyserlingk notes: “Only one tenth the number of Germans and German Canadians was interred … Included in this smaller number were only fourteen women and no children at all” (p. 17).

Kobayashi, A. (1992). The Japanese-Canadian redress settlement and its implications for ‘race relations.’ Canadian Ethnic Studies, 24, 1, 1-19.

• Keywords: Japanese-Canadian, internment, exclusion, redress settlement, relations.
• Timeline: 1940s, 1990s.
• Summary: Reflecting on the Japanese-Canadian redress settlement, Kobayashi states: “If Japanese Canadians were uprooted in the 1940s because of their ‘race’, they were compensated in the 1980s in recognition of their rights” (p. 5). In considering the meaning of ethnicity/ethno-cultural identity, Kobayashi notes: “We disagree, however, in our conception of an ‘ethnocultural’ or ‘ethnic’ group. Almost no one claims that ‘ethnicity’ can be easily or objectively defined. Even the census, with all its putative objectivity, contains deeply embedded ideological assumptions about how ethnicity is manifest within the population” (p. 10). Kobayashi goes on to state: “I would argue, on the contrary, that because ethnicity is socially constructed, both as an analytical category and as a socio-cultural attribute, it is as much a product as a constituent of multiculturalism” (p. 10).
  

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Lalande, J. (2006). The roots of multiculturalism – Ukranian-Canadian involvement in the multiculturalism discussion of the 1960s as an example of the position of the “third force.” Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 1, 47-64.

• Keywords: Bi-Bi Commission, Ukranian-Canadian, multiculturalism.
• Timeline: 1960s-2000s.
• Summary: Lalande identifies the Bi-Bi Commission as an early instance of ethno-cultural identity and multiculturalism dialogue in Canada: “This article offers insight into Ukrainian Canadians’ position in the debate and thus an impression of the hopes and concerns of the third force. The third force consisted of the “other ethnic groups,” because at the time of the debate, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (hereafter B&B Commission) divided Canadian society into three categories: the Founding Nations consisting of British and French Canadians, other ethnic groups, and First Nations. However, the B&B Commission only dealth with the first two categories” (p. 47-48). Reflecting on the complexity of the term multiculturalism, Lalande notes: “[I]t is often not quite clear what is meant by multiculturalism … [T]he concept of multiculturalism can be into three components … “social reality” … meaning that people of different ethnic groups live together in one society. Then there is the ideology of multiculturalism, the interpretation of which depends on the respective individual or institution. Finally, there is the policy of multiculturalism that depends on the respective government. Ideology and policy are not necessarily mutually exclusive. They can be intertwined, thereby influencing each other” (p. 48).

Levine-Rasky, C. (2006). Discontinuities of multiculturalism. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 3, 87-104.

• Keywords: Multiculturalism, policy, racism, pluralism, education.
• Timeline: 1990s-2000s.
• Summary: On the matter of social barriers amidst a policy of multiculturalism, Levine-Rasky observes: “Racialized groups, Aboriginal people, and recent immigrants like those in Kerrydale experience barriers in finding suitable work, housing, and an adequate income. Meanwhile, large numbers of the Canadians express intolerance for multiculturalism. Among them are some Baywoods parents” (p. 99). Near the end of the paper, Levine-Rasky asks: "Can the multiculturalism of experience be reconciled with the multiculturalism of liberal humanism?” (p. 99).

Lo, L.; & Wang, S. (1997). Settlement patterns of Toronto’s Chinese immigrants: Convergence or divergence? Canadian Journal of Regional Science, 20, 1-2, 49-72.

• Keywords: Chinese-Canadian, Toronto, community building, relations.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Outlining differences in Canada's Chinese-Canadian community, Lo and Wang note: “Chinese immigrants in Canada comprise a heterogeneous group with varying regional backgrounds. They originated from different areas, ranging from the core comprising Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, to the near periphery of South and Southeast Asia and the distant periphery of the West Indies, Central and South America, and Africa. They speak different dialects and perhaps different languages” (p. 51). While the Chinese-Canadian community is diverse: “[T]he public, and even the government sometimes, tend to treat the Chinese as a homogeneous group, and more recently, Chinese are generally perceived to be right, as a result of much media attention” (p. 52). In terms of implications: “Treating the Chinese as a homogeneous group conceals internal differences, which in turn has implications on the delivery of social/immigrant services, the design of policies affecting this group, and the deployment of marketing strategies” (p. 71).

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Mahtani, M. (2001). Representing minorities: Canadian media and minority identities. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 33, 3, 99-137.

• Keywords: Image, media, pluralism.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Considering the matter of media construction and representation of ethno-racial and ethno-cultural diversity, Mahtani notes: “The media is directly responsible for how Canada, in all of its diversity, is interpreted among its citizens. Simply put, the media is responsible for the ways that Canadian society is interpreted, considered, and evaluated among its residents. The media influences attitudes in Canada by siphoning and selecting the information we receive to made choices about our day-to-day realities. However, this selection process is governed by a series of representations. Decisions about representations of cultural diversity ought to be envisioned within a series of competing discourses taking place within media institutions. Despite what we would like to believe, Canadian media is not fair and democratic, nor objective in nature” (p. 99-100).

Makabe, T. (2005). Intermarriage: Dream becomes reality for a visible minority? Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 1, 121-126.

• Keywords: Japanese-Canadian, intermarriage, cultural change, identity.
• Timeline: 1940s-2000s.
• Summary: Regarding the geography of Canada’s Japanese-Canadian community, Makabe notes: “Of all ethnically-defined Japanese Canadians, over half (55 percent) resided in two major population centres in the country – Metropolitan Toronto and Greater Vancouver” (p. 122). Reflecting on why intermarriage is so high among Japanese-Canadians, Makabe observes: “In attempting to explain this strikingly high rate of intermarriage in the Japanese community, some of the respondents said the determining factor was the very small population and the widely scattered distribution pattern of Japanese Canadians … The proportion of Japanese in Toronto, for instance – some 20,000 Japanese among over four and a half million persons – is only 0.4 percent of the general population. This purely demographic factor has undoubtably had a strong impact on the maintenance of ties to fellow ethnics and interpersonal relationships within the Japanese-Canadian community.” (p. 122). Near the end of the paper, Makabe states: “[I]ntermarriage is inevitable in the Japanese-Canadian community. The distinction between marriage and intermarriage is vanishing among those members reaching marriable age” (p. 125).

McLellan, J. (2004). Cambodian refugees in Ontario: Religious identities, social cohesion and transnational linkages. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 36, 2, 101-118.

• Keywords: Immigrant experience, community building, Buddhism.
• Timeline: 1970s-2000s.
• Summary: Considering ways in which the identities of Cambodian-Canadians change: “This paper examined the role of religion in the negotiation of cultural and social identity among Cambodian Canadians, in the development of social cohesion, and in transnational networks and linkages. Personal family and friendship ties, religious support, sponsorship, and the vicarious connections to cultural traditions of music and dance are the most significant facets of identity, especially among first generation Cambodians” (p. 116). McLellan expands on this stating: “Through the process of resettlement, the struggle to generate new grounds of identity and legitimacy results in readjusted power relations and privileges. New forms of social, political, and economic arrangements and structures emerge with new sets of pragmatic rules and ritual narratives, new manifestations of power and activity, and multiple adaptations, all of which are evident in the different manifestations of Cambodian remittances and return visits to Cambodia” (p. 116).

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Nakhaie, M.R. (2006). Contemporary realities and future visions: Enhancing multiculturalism in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 1, 149-158.

• Keywords: Immigrant experiences, multiculturalism, civic/political participation, labour, immigration policy.
• Timeline: 1990s-2000s.
• Summary: In summarizing the paper, Nakhaie states: “This article discusses how we can enhance the future of multiculturalism in Canada. I discuss present ethno-racial inequalities in Canada before outlining reasons for the limited success of multiculturalism. Several suggestions are then made regarding what should be done if the policy is to accomplish its goal” (p. 149). Later, Nakhaie observes: “In other words, despite a well-intended policy, there remain significant inequities among ethno-racial groups, most of which are experienced by the minorities. The extent of these inequities is such that some have called Canada a racist society … Such inequities also tend to be responsible for minorities’ lower civic and, even more so, political participation” (p. 152). Reflecting on multiculturalism as a policy, Nakhaie notes: “The future of multiculturalism is unclear. It depends on the operation of capitalism as well as Canada’s attitudes and beliefs toward ethno-racial minorities and immigrants. Economic prosperity and crisis are often correlated with support for and rejection of, multicultural policies, whether it be inclusive immigration policies or the successful integration of minorities in the Canadian economic and civic arenas” (p. 154).

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Oiwa, K. (1986). The structure of dispersal: The Japanese-Canadian community of Montreal 1942-1952. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 18, 2, 20-37.

• Keywords: Japanese-Canadian, cultural change.
• Timeline: 1942-1952.
• Summary: Examining changes in Montreal’s Japanese-Canadian community between 1942 and 1952, Oiwa states: “Within the residential and organizational dispersal, however, I find, instead of a mere obedience, passiveness and assimilation, a double structure which constitutes a strategy for ethnic survival. To denote this structure, I propose the term, “self-marginalization.” The key to the understanding of the self-marginalizing behaviour among Japanese Canadians is their experience of the pre-war discrimination in British Columbia and the wartime relocation camps” (p. 20).

Owusu, T.Y. (2000). The role of Ghanian immigrant associations in Toronto, Canada. International Migration Review, 34, 4, 1155-1181.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, Ghanian-Canadian, community building.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Summarizing the findings of the study, Owusu states: “The study finds that Ghanians have established a relatively large network of township, ethnic and national associations. The associations fulfill a wide variety of economic, cultural, social and political functions related to the needs of the immigrants in the new country. At the same time, the associations serve their needs in the homeland: the immigrants use them to contribute to community development efforts, fight for certain political rights, and maintain ties to the homeland” (p. 1155).

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Peck, C.; & Sears, A. (2005). Uncharted territory: Mapping students’ conceptions of ethnic diversity. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 1, 101-120.

• Keywords: Pluralism, awareness, education.
• Timeline: Early 2000s.
• Summary: Peck and Sears identify their core argument as follows: “We argue that students understand the concept of ethnic diversity in a limited number of qualitatively different ways, and that, in general, these understandings are far less sophisticated than those outlined in curricular expectations” (p. 101). Peck and Sears call for social justice education: “It is not enough to recognize diversity and teach students about accommodation, we also need to enact the rhetoric of social justice in a much broader sense” (p. 117). Peck and Sears see the understanding of ethno-cultural and ethno-racial diversity as a necessary starting point when working towards transformative critical thought and social action: “We are left wondering how we (educators and curriculum developers) can expect students who have little or no understanding of ethnic diversity to progress on a continuum that moves from recognition of diversity to advocacy for accommodation and rights” (p. 117-118).

Petroff, L. (1977). Macedonians: From village to city. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 9, 29-41.

• Keywords: Macedonian-Canadian, immigrant experiences, community building.
• Timeline: Early 1900s.
• Summary: Toronto’s Macedonian-Canadian community was partly reshaped by larger social institutions, including public schooling: “Under pressure from assimilating agencies, the new Macedonian Canadian identity emerged in the second generation, but the history and vicissitudes of the first generation on both sides of the ocean – and the nature of their insertion into Toronto’s society and economy – shaped that identity” (p. 39).

Petroff, L. (1978). Macedonians in Toronto: From encampment to settlement. Urban History Review, 7, 2, 58-73.

• Keywords: Macedonian-Canadian, immigrant experiences, community building.
• Timeline: early 1900s
• Summary: Toronto’s Macedonian-Canadian community shifted from a temporary one to a permanent one over a period of years: “The temporary quarters of the boarding house, the sense of impermanence of men whose priority was to a home and family in a Macedonian village gave way before men who had a stake in Toronto. The end of the dream of return created new realities. It remade attitudes” (p. 73).

Petroff, L. (1995). Sojourners and settlers: The Macedonian community in Toronto to 1940. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

• Keywords: Macedonian-Canadian, immigrant experiences, community building.
• Timeline: Early 1900s to 1940.
• Summary: This book explores the challenges and changes experienced within the Canadian-Macedonian community in Toronto between the early 1900s and 1940.

Pratt, A.; & Valverde, M. (2002). From deserving victims to “masters of confusion”: Redefining refugees in the 1990s. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 27, 2, 135-161.

• Keywords: Somali-Canadian, immigrant experience, refugee.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Pratt and Valverde considers the impact on Somalis of negative public and popular views of social services, crime, immigration: “In recent years government as well as populist discourses have crossed these lines in interesting and often dangerous ways. The spectre of crime, particularly when articulated with the spectre of ‘welfare fraud,’ has been used to govern immigration in new ways and has especially affected deportation practices” (p. 159).

Premdas, R.R. (2004). Diaspora and its discontents: A Caribbean fragment in Toronto in quest of cultural recognition and political empowerment. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 27, 4, 544-564.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, diaspora, community building.
• Timeline: 1970s-early 2000s.
• Summary: Premdas outlines the core theme of the paper as follows: “This essay examines the role of a historic organization in offering succour and direction to a fragment of the Caribbean diaspora in Toronto” (p. 544). Later, Premdas describes the extensive nature of insititutionalized exclusion: “In Aristotelian terms, participation in collective decision-making stands at the heart of and is indispensable for meaningful citizenship. If inclusion is about all these positive goods, then exclusion is the opposite condition expressed in marginalization, disempowerment, discrimination, and oppression. The practices of exclusion are often institutionalized as a routine part of a regime of inequality that is accepted unquestionably as natural” (p. 561).

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Raby, R. (2004). ‘There’s no racism at my school, it’s just joking around’: Ramifications for anti-racist education. Race Ethnicity and Education, 7, 4, 367-383.

• Keywords: Education, anti-racism.
• Timeline: Early 2000s.
• Summary: Identifying a lack of awareness of anti-racism education, Raby states: “[T]here seemed to be a lack of familiarity with anti-racist education, particularly awareness of structural racism, despite the fact that many had gone to school within Toronto and thus likely received some form of anti-racist education” (p. 381). Raby later adds: “[T]hese young women [participants] often seem to inadvertently slip into understandings of race and racism that deny their relevance and which position white, Anglo culture as the normative Canadian center” (p. 381).

Rahim, A. (2000). Multiculturalism or ethnic hegemony: a critique of multicultural education in Toronto. Journal of Ethnic Studies, 18, 3, 29-46.

• Keywords: Multicultural critique, multicultural education, Toronto.
• Timeline: 1950-88.
• Summary: Taking a critical look at multiculturalism policy, Rahim argues: “Multiculturalism is more political than cultural. It is used to mobilize the various non-Anglo and non-White minority groups for political ends on behalf of the hegemonic ethnic group” (p. 43).

Reitz, J. (1988). Less racial discrimination in Canada, or simply less racial conflict? Implications of comparisons with Britain. Canadian Public Policy, 14, 424-441.

• Keywords: Relations, discrimination, racism, policy.
• Timeline: 1980s.
• Summary: Critiquing Canada’s inability to foster an equitable social landscape, Reitz notes: “In a buoyant economy, expansion creates opportunities for minorities; in an economic downturn, privileged groups close ranks, carefully guarding their own interests against those of newcomers” (p. 433). Connecting this 1988 observation to mid-1960’s and the Trudeau era, Reitz notes: “John Porter’s (1965) analysis of ‘the vertical mosaic’ serves as a reminder that the Canadian ethnic mosaic never implied deliverance from inequality. When Pierre Trudeau outlined the ideology of multiculturalism in 1972, equality was one ultimate objective, but no specifics were guaranteed” (p. 436).

Roy, P. E. (1995). The fifth force: Multiculturalism and the English-Canadian identity. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 538, 199-209.

• Keywords: Bi-Bi Commission, Immigration policy, urban centres, Toronto.
• Timeline: 1971-1993.
• Summary: On the setting and controversy of the Bi-Bi commission, Roy observes: “At the time of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in the 1960s, Ukrainians reminded the federal government that not all Canadians belonged to the first two forces, French and English” (p. 199). The article provides a brief overview of how multiculturalism policy in Canada transformed between the 1970s and 1990s (p. 200-201).

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Sable, M. (1998). George Drew and the rabbis: Religious education in Ontario’s public schools. Canadian Jewish Studies, 6, 25-53.

• Keywords: Jewish, Toronto, exclusion, activism, relations, policy.
• Timeline: 1940s-1950s.
• Summary: Diverging views by Toronto rabbis on an attempt by the Conservative premier in 1950 to promote compulsory Protestant education. According to Sable: “The major change reflected in the Drew Regulation was that, for the first time, instruction in religious education was made compulsory in all public schools, up to and including Grade 8, for two one-half periods per week during the school day” (p. 26). As Sable notes: “Prior to the 1944 Drew Regulation, religious instruction was not formally part of the public school curriculum” (p. 27). When Jewish community leaders (Rabbi Feinberg) voiced opposition to the Hope Commission (in 1945), the commission was unresponsive (p. 32). Reflecting on the lasting presence of the Drew Regulation, Sable notes: “The Drew Regulation was one Ontario government’s wartime response to certain perceived societal ills. Yet, no matter that it was clearly discriminatory, no subsequent Ontario government mustered the political will to overturn it. Therefore, the Drew Regulation remained the law for forty-six years” (p. 41).

Schoenfeld, S. (1999). Transnational religion, religious schools, and the dilemma of public funding for Jewish education: The case of Ontario. Jewish Political Studies Review, 11, 115-139.

• Keywords: Jewish, education, funding.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: On the matter of paying (twice) for religious schools, Schoenfeld notes: “The inequity imposes financial penalties on parents who send their children to the hundreds of independent schools based in other religious traditions. Parents of students in Jewish day schools pay twice for education – once to the public system and once to the schools their children attend” (p. 133). Towards the end of the paper, Schoenfeld asks the following question: “If students are removed from the public school to state-supported schools which teach the priority of particular value systems over those of civil society, can the moral dimension of civil society be maintained?” (p. 134).

Sev’er, A. (1993). Anomie as powerlessness: sorting ethnic group prestige, class, and gender.’ Canadian Ethnic Studies, 25, 2, 84-99.

• Keywords: African-American, Chinese-Canadian, German-Canadian, Italian Canadian, Jewish, Ukrainian-Canadian, Caribbean, identity, Toronto, sex/gender.
• Timeline: early 1990s.
• Summary: A summary of the paper reads as follows: “In this Toronto study of seven ethnic groups we found that ethnic prestige and social class were major factors in predicting powerlessness and anomie. English Torontonians of higher social class and prestige scored on anomie, while West Indians who were lowest in class status and ethnic prestige scored the highest on anomie” (p. 84).

Shaffir, William. (1981). Chassidic Communities in Montreal. In M. Weinfeld et al (Ed.), Canadian Jewish Mosaic. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons Canada Limited. (pp. 273-287)

• Keywords: Jewish, education, community building, isolation, Montreal.
• Timeline: 1978-1981.
• Summary: Considering matters of curriculum and teacher hiring, Shaffir notes: “The way Chassidic schools organize their secular curricula exemplifies and deliberately perpetuates such a view of secular society. School administrators and community leaders arrange all secular studies so as to ensure that their content does not conflict with religious studies. To this end, they devote careful attention to both the hiring of teachers and the screening of the curriculum” (p. 280). Shaffir summarizes the aim of Chassidic education as follows: “Children, contend the Chassidim, must be raised with a Torah-grounded education, and deflections from this path either eliminated or carefully controlled” (p. 284).

Solomon, R.P. (1992). Black resistance in high school: Forging a separatist culture. Albany: State University of New York Press.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, activism, education.
• Timeline: 1980s-early 1990s.
• Summary: Highlighting the dimension of ethno-racial identity: “Solomon finds social reproduction and resistance theories inadequate in explaining the effects of structure and culture on the process and outcome of schooling for the minority-group students he studied. These theories emphasize the role of social class in their analyses and explanation and generally ignore or marginalize racial inequality in schools. But … he concludes that race (or racial inequality) is critical to an analysis of the educational problems of racial minorities” (p. 527).

Suzuki, D. (1988). Metamorphosis: Stages in a Life. Toronto: Stoddart.

• Keywords: Japanese-Canadian, internment, exclusion.
• Timeline: 1930s-1980s.
• Summary: Reflecting on the post-WWII era, Suzuki notes: “The final indignity was the refusal by the B.C. government to allow any Japanese to stay in the province after the war” (p. 74). Suzuki goes on to state that: “In the same year [1944], Prime Minister Mackenzie King announced his plans for the Japanese after the war – deportation and dispersion. He would set up a commission to examine the background and loyalties of all Japanese” (p. 74).

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Tastsoglou, E. (1997). The margin at the centre: Greek immigrant women in Ontario. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 29, 1, 119-160.

• Keywords: Greek-Canadian immigrant experiences, sex/gender, Ontario.
• Timeline: 1900s.
• Summary: Interlocking the dimensions of sex and ethno-cultural identity, this “paper describes and analyzes the lived experience of the migration process of four generational groups of Greek immigrant women, starting from the standpoint of women. Connections are established between the Greek female lived experience in the various stages of the migration process and the larger gender, ethnic and class relations organizing such experience in the specific socio-historical circumstances of migration” (p. 119).

Tator, C.; Henry, F. (2006). Racial profiling in Canada: Challenging the myth of “a few bad apples”. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, racism.
• Timeline: Early 2000s.
• Summary: Critiquing the practice of racial profiling in Canada: “The authors argue that racial profiling is a manifestation of “democratic racism,” in which bias and discrimination “cloak their presence” in liberal principles. The white majority uses a “racialized discourse” as a strategy to turn attention away from racial profiling as a concrete social problem” (p. 194).

Teixeira, C. (1996). The suburbanization of Portuguese Communities in Toronto and Montreal: From isolation to residential integration? Canadian Issues, 18, 181-201.

• Keywords: Portuguese-Canadian, community building.
• Timeline: 1984-1994.
• Summary: Describing the Portuguese communities in Toronto and Montreal between the 1950s and 1990s, Teixeira notes: “In the last four decades, the Portuguese have constructed a thriving, complex ethnic enclave, with a high degree of “institutional completeness” (using Breton’s terminology)” (p. 188). On the question of identity, Teixeira states: “Deciding whether they are “Canadian,” “Portuguese-Canadian,” or “Portuguese” will likely remain an unsolved dilemma for many. The Portuguese, in both Toronto and Montreal, are in control of their own mobility” (p. 191).

Teixeira, C. (2006). Housing experiences of black Africans in Toronto’s rental market: A case study of Angolian and Mozambican immigrants. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 3, 58-86.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, racism.
• Timeline: early 2000s.
• Summary: On the matter of barriers faced by African-Canadians in Toronto’s Rental market, Teixeira notes: “The evidence indicates that both groups encounter significant barriers and challenges in securing affordable and adequate housing. Of these barriers, one of the most commonly cited is prejudice and discrimination by landlords based on race or skin colour. In this context, race and cultural background can be seen as major barriers to equal treatment for members of certain visible minority groups in Toronto’s rental housing market” (p. 58).

Tirone, S.; & Pedlar, A. (2005). Leisure, place, and diversity: The experiences of ethnic minority youth. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 2, 32-48.

• Keywords: Immigrant experiences, pluralism.
• Timeline: 1990s-2000s.
• Summary: Reflecting on challenges faced by children of newcomers to a country, Tirone and Pedlar state: “Individuals who are born in one country to parents who are immigrants from another know first-hand the culture, values, and beliefs of their parents’ host community, and they also know, and may have strong allegiance to, the culture, values, and beliefs of their parents’ countries of origin. Some research has explored the challenges faced by second-generation youths whose lives may be deemed problematic because they are not part of two worlds” (p. 33).

Tran, Y. (2005). From Vietnam to Calgary. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 2, 103-106.

• Keywords: Vietnamese-Canadian, refugee.
• Timeline: Late 1970s-Early 1980s.
• Summary: A personal story of one woman’s journey from Vietnam to Calgary in 1979.

Troper, H. (1972). Creek-Negroes of Oklahoma and immigration, 1909-1911. Canadian Historical Review, 53, 272-288.

• Keywords: African-Canadian, immigration, exclusion.
• Timeline: early 1900s.
• Summary: Critiquing Canada’s exclusionary approach to immigration between 1909 and 1911 Troper states: “The continuation of covert anti-Negro immigration restrictions beyond 1911 and the extension of such restrictions to other ‘undesirables’ is a subject deserving of further investigation” (p. 288).

Troper, H. (1978). Nationalism and the history curriculum in Canada. The History Teacher, 12, 1, 11-27.

• Keywords: Multicultural, education, policy.
• Timeline: 1970s.
• Summary: Reflecting on the changing nature of multicultural policy in an educational setting, Troper observes: “Provincial government acceptance of the new multiculturalism, especially as articulated in federal government policy has been slow in coming, but it has arrived at least in Ontario. Acceptance of multiculturalism in education, a field within provincial jurisdiction, as been an especially agonizing process. Working so long within an Anglo-conformist framework, certain that remaking the immigrant child was not simply a duty but a sacred trust, the school system must now re-examine past assumptions and design curricula to conform to multicultural imagery” (p. 25).

Troper, H. (1993). Canada’s immigration policy since 1945. International Journal, 68, 255-281.

• Keywords: Immigration policy, exclusion, interest convergence theory.
• Timeline: 1945-1993.
• Summary: Summing up Canada’s immigration policy between 1945 and 1993, Troper states: “In the whirlwind of change which has shaped and reshaped Canada’s immigration policy since World War II, the dominant focus of policy formation has remained remarkably constant. Immigration policy has closely followed the twists and turns of national economic policy” (p. 255).

Troper, H. & Weinfeld, M. (1999). Jewish-Ukrainian relations in Canada since World War II and the emergence of the nazi war criminal issue. American Jewish History, 77, 106-134.

• Keywords: Jewish, Ukrainian-Canadian, relations.
• Timeline: 1945-1999.
• Summary: Early in the paper, Troper and Weinfeld note: “The definition of an ethnic group involves a sense of shared history, real or imagined. For both Jews and Ukrainians the flow of events which constitutes each group’s shared history is not imagined. But interpretation of those events is grounded in different if overlapping understandings of the past those understandings are applied to the cause of ethnic cohesion today” (p. 106).

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Wayland, D.N. (1995). We are now an actual nation: The impact of national independence on the Croatian diaspora in Canada. Diaspora, 4, 3-29.

• Keywords: Croatian-Canadian, relations, diaspora.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: Wayland’s central argument is as follows: “Rather than instilling a sense of unity, Croatian independence has either created or reinforced the contestations over notions of Croatian peoplehood” (p. 3). Midway through the paper, Wayland notes: “The internal dynamics of most diaspora communities are seldom harmonious, and in this way Croatians are in no way unusual; as Rasporich argues, Croatians in Canada have never been the model of community cohesion and unity” (p. 13). Wayland goes on to state: “Having a national past acknowledged by outsiders is important, as it is used to forge a viable cultural identity in the present and the wartime past of Croatians, stained by Ustasha rule, was problematic” (p. 14).

Wayland, S. (1997). Religious expression in public schools: Kirpan in Canada, hijab in France. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 545-561.

• Keywords: Sikh, Muslim, religious expression, education.
• Timeline: 1990s.
• Summary: As Wayland notes, “Due to French influence and the province’s rejection of federal multiculturalism policy, Quebec is the only Canadian province in which headscarves have been banned from a public school” (p. 559).

Wayne, M. (1995). The Black population of Canada West on the eve of the American Civil War: A Reassessment based on the Manuscript Census of 1861. Social History, 28, 465-481.

• Keywords: African-Canadian.
• Timeline: mid-1800s.
• Summary: According to Wayne: “Finally, there is the testimony of the census itself. By 1861 blacks had made their way to all corners of Canada West and had become an integral part of the provincial economy. A great many – more than half – were from the United States. Contrary to popular opinion, however, they were mainly free blacks, not runaway slaves” (p. 481).

Weinfeld, M. and Schnoor, R.F. (2005). Seeking a mate: Inter-group partnership among gay Jewish men. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 37, 1, 21-39.

• Keywords: Jewish, gay, sex/gender.
• Timeline: Early 2000s.
• Summary: In the paper, Weinfeld and Schnoor observe: “The 2001 Canadian Census data reveal that Canadian gay and lesbian Jews are “out marrying” at a rate of approximately eighty-nine percent … We found that the majority of gay Jewish men interviewed expressed a desire for a Jewish partner” (p. 21). Overall, Weinfeld and Schnoor identify five layers of this dynamic, including: a small number of openly gay Jews (p 27), non-acceptance by the Jewish community (p. 28), a lack of gay Jewish infrastructure (p. 29), internalized distaste or discomfort with Jewishness (p. 31), internalized homophobia (p. 33).

Williams, C.J. (2006). Obscurantism in action: How the Ontario Human Rights Commission frames racial profiling. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 38, 2, 1-18.

• Keywords: Policy, exclusion.
• Timeline: Early 2000s.
• Summary: Summing up the paper, Williams notes: “Significantly, this article has addressed the specific question of how the OHRC frames profiling in order to advance the more general argument that the state, as presently constituted, is no guarantor of substantive anti-racism. It goes without saying that placatory measures (i.e., commissioned reports) which mollify anger stemming from racial injustice carry far lower political costs than policies designed to effect the progressive transformation of major institutions” (p. 15).

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Zine, J. (2001). ‘Negotiating equity’: The dynamics of minority community engagement in constructing inclusive education policy. Cambridge Journal of Education, 31, 2, 239-269.

• Keywords: Equity, policy, education, anti-racism.
• Timeline: Late 1990s-Early 2000s.
• Summary: According to Zine: “This paper problematizes the politics of inclusion in education by examining how minority groups in Toronto attempted to ‘negotiate equity’ in response to the school board’s release of a draft policy on anti-racism and ethno-cultural equity in education. A competing policy challenging the specific focus on race, ethnicity and ‘faith communities’ as being ‘too narrow’ argued that the notion of equity should be broadly constructed to accommodate the categories of other ‘historically disadvantaged groups’, such as women, the disabled, and gays and lesbians, under a single, comprehensive policy” (p. 240).

Zine, J. (2001). Muslim youth in Canadian schools: Education and the politics of religious education. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 32, 399-423.

• Keywords: Muslim, education.
• Timeline: Late 1990s.
• Summary: Zine summarizes the paper as follows: “This article provides an ethnographic analysis of the schooling experiences of Muslim youth in Canada who are committed to maintaining an Islamic lifestyle despite the social pressures of conformity to the dominant culture” (p. 399). Towards the end of the paper, Zine notes: “The narratives of Muslim students and parents speak powerfully and poignantly about the ways in which they attempted to negotiate their religious identities within the context of a secular school system, despite having to contend with peer pressure, racism, discrimination, and Islamophobia” (p. 418).